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Kerala was known in distant countries in ancient times as the land of spices, cardamom, nutmeg and pepper. But the real treasure of Kerala lies in the cultural heritage of its people, in their ballads, their songs and dances, their rituals and their intellectual pursuits.
There are about 35 different types of tribal people in Kerala, tribal dances like Elelakkaradi, Paniyarkali and Mankali still survive. Of over 50 folk dances in Kerala, the popular ones are Kaliyattom, Kolam Thullal, Kolkali, Velakali and Kaikottikal. All these are performed in accompaniment of songs and drumming and often in colourful ornamental costumes. From these arose Kerala's classical dances like Koothu, Kathakali, Mohiniattam and Patokom.
Kathakali uses vivid and eloquent mudras (hand signs). A visually powerful art form, the Kathakali dance dramas are based on stories from the two great indian epics - the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. It is said to have evolved from a rivalry between two princely families. One had written a story cycle revolving around the life of Krishna, called Krishnattam, the other around the life of Rama called Ramattam. Mohiniattam, which literally means "the dance of the enchantress", is sensuous and lyrical. Dancers display grace as well as passion.
Martial Arts of Kerala - Kalaripayattu - consists of a series of intricate movements that train the body and mind. The discipline is continually practised and complemented by the Kerala's famous ayurvedic and nature cure techniques.These are believed to have travelled to eastern China, where they inspired the evolution of other martial art forms. 'Verumkai' is the final and most difficult of lessons taught in the kalari. The others are Maithozhil - combat through kicks, Kolathiri - combat using sticks and Angathiri - the use of metal weapons.
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| Classical Dances: |
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| Kathakali |
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Kerala is known the world over by its own performing art form, the Kathakali. "Katha" means story and "Kali" stands for dance. It is a beautiful mix of dance, drama and music that the connoisseurs of art world qualified as 'a total art form of immense sophistication and power'. This is a form of dance formerly confined only to the festival stages in temples.
It is a mime show, dancing with mudras (formulated hand gestures conveying the text of lyrics) and specialised dancing steps following the song rendered in the background by a singer to the accompaniment of Chenda, Maddalam (country drums), Chenkila and Elathalam (Cymbals). Face painted greenand made up with spot of sacred sandal paste on the brow, eye-lined with mascara, lip toned by cherry and white chin mask, the dancer dons a colourful costume and rich and impressive crown and jewellery. A traditional pedestal Nilavilakku (oil lamp) with sixty wicks on both sides lit together lights the dancing floor. There are four types of make up. Pachcha (green) face painted green and don sober and beautiful attires denoting the godly or virtuous character. Thadi (beard); divided into Chuvanna Thadi (red beard) depicting aggressive and demoniac characters, Karutha Thadi (black beard) depicting aborigines, cavemen and foresters and Vella Thadi (white beard) representing Rishis, Saints, Preceptors and other intellectuals. Kari (carbon black) representing mean characters and Minukku (refined) presenting women and Brahmins.
There is a school of thought that Ramanattam could be the ancestor of Kathakali for very many similarities in the presentations, costumes, acting and background music could be cited in both. The stage decor, costumes, make up, and mudras as seen today are purported to be improvements bestowed gradually to this art form by two veteran Namboothiris, Kalladikkodan and Kaplingadan Manas. Centuries down, there developed a branch of literature known as "Kathakali literature" and compositions of poet laureates like Kottayath thampuran, Unnayi Warrier, Koyithampuran, Vayaskara Mooss are milestones in the history of Kathakali.
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| Mohiniyattam |
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Mohiniyattam, the female semi-classical dance form of Kerala is said to be older than Kathakali. Literally, the dance of the enchantress, Mohiniyattam was mainly performed in the temple precincts of Kerala. It is also the heir to Devadasi dance heritage like Bharata Natyam, Kuchipudi and Odissi. The word 'Mohini' means a maiden who exerts desire or steals the heart of the onlooker. There is a well known story of Lord Vishnu taking on the guise of a 'Mohini' to enthrall people, both in connection with the churning of the milk ocean and with the episode of slaying of Bhasmasura. Thus it is thought that Vaishnava devotees gave the name of Mohiniyattam to this dance form.
The first reference to Mohiniyattam is found in 'Vyavaharamala' composed by Mazhamangalam Narayanan Namboodiri, assigned to the 16th century AD. In the 19th century, Swati Thirunal, the king of erstwhile Travancore, did much to encourage and stabilise this art form. The post Swati period however witnessed the downfall of this art form. It somehow degenerated into eroticism to satisfy the Epicurean life of some provincial Satraps and landlords. It was Poet Vallathol who again revived it and gave it a status in modern times through Kerala Kalamandalam, which he founded in 1930. Kalamandalam Kalyaniamma, the first dance teacher of Kalamandalam was instrumental in resuscitating this ancient art form. Along with her, Krishna Panicker, Madhavi Amma and Chinnammu Amma, the last links of a disappearing tradition, nurtured aspirants in the discipline at Kalamandalam.
The theme of Mohiniyattam is love and devotion to god. Vishnu or Krishna is more often the hero. The spectators could feel his invisible presence when the heroine or her maid details dreams and ambitions through the circular movements, delicate footsteps and subtle expressions. The dancer in the slow and medium tempos is able to find adequate space for improvisations and suggestive bhavas. In format, this is similar to Bharatanatyam. The movements are graceful like Odissi and the costumes sober and attractive. It is essentially a solo dance, but in present times it is performed in groups also. The repertoire of Mohiniyattam follows closely that of Bharatanatyam. Beginning with Cholkettu, the dancer performs Jathiswaram, Varnam, Padam and Thillana in a concert. Varnam combines pure and expressional dance, while Padam tests the histrionic talent of a dancer and Thillana exposes her technical artistry.
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| Folk Dances: |
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Traditional folk dances are of great variety. One of the most charming is the Kummi, where the rhythm of the song and steps begins in slow beats and gets exciting acceleration as well as complication. |
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| Thiruvathirakali |
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Thiruvathirakkali or Kaikottikkali is a popular dance form of the women folk of Kerala. In this, eight to ten girls perform forming a circle by themselves. They sing and dance to the rhythm of clapping hands. Well-versed padams of Kathakali and Mohiniyatttam come alive in Thiruvathirakkali with a folk accent. The music and movements of Thiruvathirakkali has a native simplicity and lyrical grace. This graceful systematic group dance
is performed on festivals like Onam and Thiruvathira.
Legend says that Parvati performed severe mortificatory penance to win Shiva as her husband. Very much pleased with her penance, Shiva appeared before her and promises to take her as his wife. This promise was made on the day of Thiruvathira star of the month of Dhanu. Therefore on this day, married and unmarried woman perform dance as a ritual. The married, for the well being of their husband and the unmarried, for acquiring a good husband. Also known as Kaikottikkali, this dance has a semi-religious significance, it's a kind of ritual performed to ensure happy and harmonious marital life.
On the day of Thiruvathira, the women folk takes an early bath and gets dressed in their traditional attire. They take noyambu (fast) on that day by having only non-rice food. In the evening they perform the dance and adorn their hair with Pathirapoovu.
Essentially a Kerala dance, hence the danseuse wear the typical dress of Kerala (Mundu and Veshti) with their hair bedecked with jasmine flowers. The dominant sentiment of this rustic dance is unalloyed joy. The footwork and movements of this form have grown naturally from the grace, simplicity, dignity, boldness, sense of beauty and such other qualities that are abundant in the woman of Kerala. This dance form has an amazing lasya charm redolent of devotion and erotic sentiment. Moving in circle, clock wise and anti clock wise, the dancers bend side ways also for clapping together in beautiful gestures. The songs of the dance have sprung up from the everyday life of rustic generation, particularly from the simple amusement of women folk. For this reason, their tunes and rhythm are closely associated with the social life and natural beauty of Kerala. Some other forms are also prevalent of this folk dance known as kolattam and Kummi.
Kerala Kalamandalam is one of the institution which imparts training in Kaikottikkali in order to preserve the rare traits of a village dance despite its narrow range. Amidst the sophisticated classical dances, Kaikottikkali strives to save its identity.
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| Margamkali |
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Among the performing arts of Christians, Margamkali deserves special mention. It is a group dance developed by the Syrian Christians of Kerala. The word 'Margam' means path, way, religion or creed. The real source of inspiration for Margamkali was Kalaripayattu which was very popular when the Christian community had developed the form. The art was meant for the propagation of Christian religious ideas. The form of the art was the result of direct inspiration from the indigenous culture. The dancers play in a circle around a lighted oil lamp while singing themselves. There are no accompanying instruments. The leader of the troupe or tutor known as 'Asan' leads the song and the group repeats the same and dances. The language used in the songs of Margamkali reveals its relation with old Tamil.
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| Kolkali |
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Muslim Kolkali is similar to the Kolkali practiced by the Christians and Harijans. It is a group dance in a circle with short sticks in the hands of the dancers with which they make the rhythm by beating them. The vibrant steps are accompanied by the vocal music consisting of meaningless syllables followed by songs. The dance goes from slow to a fast tempo creating an interesting climax. There are diverse choreographic patterns in the dance. Males only participate in this dance and they require basic martial training. |
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| Oppana |
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Oppana and Aravanmuttu are the popular forms of entertainment among Muslims. Oppana is a form accompanied by clapping of hands. Both men and women participate in it. In marriages, the women move in a circle and receive the bride while men stand aside singing songs and receive the bridegroom. Aravana is a dance, which the Muslims of Kerala had learned from the Arabs. Being an Arabic dance, the music that accompanies it also Arabic. The rhythm is played on an instrument called daf or tap, a round percussion instrument with one side covered with hide. |
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| Dance Drama |
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| Yatrakali |
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Yatrakali is differently known as Samghakkali, Chattira Ankam, Sastramkam, Kshatramkam, Panemkali. It is an art of the Nambootiris which had socio-political aspects at the time when it was conceived and later evolved as a performance form. It is believed that the formation of the art was related to a period when the Nambootiris were persecuted under the rule of one of the Cheraman Perumals who accepted the Buddhist faith.
This art had been conceived as a loosely knit dramatic form in which many dance, music and dramatic pieces were woven together. It was a mirror held against the artistic and social sense of the region and the times. Elements of many popular forms of dance and music were incorporated into this art either in their transformed or real forms. The boat songs, Tiruvathira songs and dance, Kurathiattam, Mohinipurappadu are some of the musical and dance pieces adapted for this.
There are many rituals in this ritualistic pseudo dramatic form like 'Kottichakam pookal' (the arrival of the participants), 'Kazhchakkottu' (playing of percussion instruments during the meals at noon), 'Nalupadam' (a song consisting of four sections or stanzas) sung in the performance space in front of an oil lamp with four lighted wicks (its purpose being the success of the performance), 'Pana' (a ritual reminiscent of the wide defence preparations in the country against enemies by establishing many Kalaris in which martial training was imported) and 'Ayudhameduppu' (a performance showing the preparation for war to instigate the people to join the militia).
Pana, the most important event is the dramatic entry of a character named 'Ittikkandappan'. He is supposed to be a sycophant of the ruler responsible for giving all wrong advice. This character is a butt of ridicule in the play and is portrayed as a feudal chief of notoriety and wickedness. He makes his entry by singing and dancing as in the case of any traditional Indian folk play. Then the musicians ask questions and he replies. The lengthy opening dialogues reveal the feudal arrogance of the character and the popular contempt for his demeanour.
The talented Nambootiris were the artists who enacted this play and it is used to be performed in feudal household ceremonies like marriage, death anniversary etc. The most significant aspect of the art is its reference to the emergence of the Nambootiris as a military community at least for some time in the cultural scene of Kerala.
Yatrakali represents the victory of the Nambootiris. The word Yatra probably signifies this march. The name Chattira Ankam also was attributed to this art only due to its relation to the Ankam or fight. The fight was displayed as part of the performance of Yatrakali and this part was the Ayudhameduppu or assuming of weapons. The Sangham or group also signifies according to the scholars, the warrior group of the feudal period. 'Kali' or the play came in only when the old ankam was re-enacted as a mock performance.
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| Ochirakali |
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It is held at a place called Ochira in Alleppey district. The kali (play) in which a large number of people participate is held as a part of an annual festival to commemorate a battle fought between the kings of two feudal principalities, Kayamkulam and Ambalapuzha. The festival falls around 15th June and it lasts for two days. The mock show of the fight is done on both days. The fight takes place in front of the Ochira temple. A very special feature of this temple is that it has no temple building or any image of god or goddess. There are many pipal trees which are all worshipped by the devotees. There are no official pujaris. The main deity is known as Parabrahmam. The festivals are conducted by a committee consisting of representatives of 52 villages around this area. The large and open space known as Patanilam in front of the place of worship is the ground where the mock fight take place. The participants in the fight hold a sword in the right hand and a shield in other hand and are dressed as warriors. Only members of the Nair community used to participate in the kali. But now it has assumed the character of a festival in which members of all communities take active part. Women do not participate in the fight. There are no duel combats, only group fights. Two groups fight each other, each group advancing in offence and retreating in defence. The movement start slowly and gain momentum, attaining fast tempo. There are a number of forward and backward movements which exhibit the physical prowess of the groups involved. |
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| Chavittunatakam |
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Chavittunatakam is a Christian dramatic form which was introduced during the time of the Portuguese in Kerala in the16th century A.D. 'Chavittu' means the rhythmic steps which accompanied the recitation of lines.
In the beginning this theatre was practiced by Latin Christians. This concept of the western opera type of theatre was inspired from the miracle plays of the west. The themes presented were also western. The texts were written in old Tamil. The acting techniques, stage structure and treatment of the plot were all western. The influence of Kathakali can be seen in the use of curtains and in certain elements of the costumes. The influence of Kalaripayattu is evident from the vivacious fighting scenes. The characters used to sing their dialogues. The adventurous themes selected for Chavittunatakam, like Charlemangne, St. George etc gave immense opportunity to use the local Kalaripayattu both for the fighting scenes and total kinetic design. The participants of the play used to be very militant in their real life as they were sometimes used for fighting trespassers on private land. Kalaripayattu had immensely influenced the form. The forceful stamping of the foot by the actors is most dramatic and it effectively communicates the basic heroic mood in most of the themes. Being an opera, gestures are not used in Chavittunatakam to communicate ideas. The steps, the stamping and the locomotion of the body sharply coincide with the vocal singing and the accompanying rhythm on the instrument chenda creating a very vibrant dramatic effect. Male actors does the roles of women. The stage was a low platform of the strongest wood, about twenty yards long, eight yards broad and half a yard high. The performance was deemed a failure if, by the time the play ended, the platform had not been completely wrecked by the tremendous pounding of the actors feet.
The training in the art was given by the chief Guru known as Annavi or Asan. He used to give the basic martial training to the actors before introducing them to the text. The texts were preserved either in palm leaf or paper and they were known as Chuvati. The Annavi was well versed in Tamil which was the language in which the texts were written. The number of performers and troupes in this discipline is now coming down and the art is not getting adequate encouragement from the public.
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| Krishnanattam |
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This is another form of dance drama, enacted in Guruvayoor Temple, depicting the frolics and divinity of Lord Krishna. The Sree Krishna Temple of Guruvayoor was absolutely owned and maintained by the Zamourin of Kozhikode till the end of their empire conquered by the British. One of the Zamourins, King Manavedan, contemporary of Saint Vilwamangalam, a scholar and poet, was an ardent devotee of Guruvayoor deity. He used to find time, even amidst the tight schedules of governance, to spend few days in devotion within the precincts of the temple. Saint Vilwamangalam was very much in the temple and, it was known to all that he was frequented by the sight of Sree Krishna alive. Zamourin pestered the Saint with a queer request to show him also the lord live during one of His secretive appearance to him. Once, while walking out of the temple towards the 'Manjulal', the Banyan tree named after a virgin devotee unified with the Lord, both of them came across few children playing in the shade of it. Vilwamangalam looked delighted and told "Lord, quick, look at these children touching my body". Lo! It was a blissful sight of lifetime for the King. He saw Krishna as a lad squatting on the floor frolicking and playing with other children. The King could not believe his eyes for a second. He lost control of himself, in a sudden leap, jumped to the midst of the children and in a whiff, embraced Krishna. The Lord Himself taken aback, chastised him saying, "tut, tut, Vilwamangalam did not seek permission from me for this" and wriggled Himself out of his caged arms. In the melee, the King could pick a peacock quill the Lord adorned his tuft. The King regarded this as a rare divine gift and made a crown in gold to tuck quill on. By the frenzy caused of divine touch, the King wrote a drama on Krishna and premiered it in Guruvayoor Temple. The actor who played the role of Krishna was adored with peacock quill crown. The legend is that the actor, the moment he wore the crown, slipped into a godly mood and acted in a superhuman manner making the play unexpectedly successful. Lord Krishna Himself invested in him.
The Krishnattam troupe was once invited to perform in the Tripunithura temple. While the show was on, certain mischievous characters brought a tusker in front of the stage. On seeing it, actor characterizing Krishna became angry and jumped down the stage, reached the animal and caught hold of it by its two tusks. The scene became tense. Elders and King himself intervened and pacified him, else it could have been a fierce incident. The legend continues.
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| Ramanattam |
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Once the King Kerala Varma of Kottarakkara requested Manavedan, Zamourin of Kozhikode to send the Krishnanattam troupe to his palace for a performance. Manavedan curtly rejected the request expressing that it is meant to be staged only in the Guruvayoor temple and also that the people of Southern Kerala have not yet grown intellectually to understand and enjoy such an art form, citing the incident at Tripunithura. Belittled and humiliated King vowed to retort and immediately wrote Ramayanam in the Attakkadha fashion with verses set to music and prose dialogues. He named it "Ramanattam", opposing Krishnanattam, and wished to bring in all the pomp and grandeur of Krishnanattam to it. He composed the entire Ramayanam in eight volumes in Manipravalam style (form of poetic composition in which words of Malayalam and Snaskrit are blended indistinguishably like pearls and gems studded in a golden necklace). It was a dance drama and the actors were given special and tough training and rehearsals with rich costumes and jewellery and premiered in the Kottarakkara palace. It could be the ancestor of Kathakali for very many similarities in the presentations, costumes, acting and background music could be cited. The stage decor, costumes, make up, and mudras (formulated hand gestures conveying the text of lyrics) as seen today are improvements bestowed gradually to this art form by two veteran Namboothiris, Kalladikkodan and Kaplingadan. Centuries down, there developed a branch of literature known as "Kathakali literature" and compositions of poet laureates like Kottayath thampuran, Unnayi Warrier, Koyithampuran, Vayaskara Mooss are milestones in the history of Kathakali.
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| Semi Classical Dance |
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| Thullal |
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The Thullal emerged in the eighteenth century. Thullal literally means dance. This art form is the cumulative product of all traditional theatrical arts of Kerala, both folk and classical. Kunchan Nambiar was the creator of Thullal, was vigorously earthy. He wanted to make the earth a cleaner place and its inhabitants more decent people. He believed that a rational sanity with healthy roots in earth could achieve a great reordering of life. No social stratum was the need for correctives in his attitudes and behaviour. He wanted to include in his audience the whole society. He realized that the highly Sanskritized literary diction would fail to get his message across to large sections of the people. So he used the simplest diction, including slang. His verse had a vital rhythm and clung to the memory even without conscious effort. The internal rhymes keep up a lively beat and he can deliver hammer- blows with his rhymes with a smashing impact. He rejected Kathakali and turned to the tradition of people, the dance forms of the lowest strata even of the Pariahs.
The art of Thullal was evolved as a system out of the various singing and dancing art forms of the people incorporating apt features of classical styles so that by the harmonious blend of the folk and classical forms of art it represented the accumulated aesthetic experience of all sections of the people high and low. The themes were drawn from the never failing myths and epics of India.
The Thullal has a full-fledged libretto, a tale narrated in verse. The Thullal has only one actor. The Thullal is like the Sanskrit Bhana. He uses the gesture language, but vestigially and transparently so that his mimetic narration gains in speed and benefits by rapid communication. The full painting of the face is retained for the expressive advantage. The costume is picturesque. The actor is supported by a singer who repeat his lines, a drummer and a cymbalist. The narration is accompanied by dancing.
The roles of raconteur and actor are perpetually interchanged in the same man with the aesthetic effect which characterizes the continuity of films that have had the benefit of subtle and imaginative direction. The narrative thus emerges with a continuously shifting focus penetrating the interior world of men's fantasies and day-dreams, seeing the things with same objectivity, correcting vanity with raillery and deeper fixations with a cathartic, caricaturist distortion.
The roles of raconteur and actor are perpetually interchanged in the same man with the aesthetic effect which characterizes the continuity of films that have had the benefit of subtle and imaginative direction. The narrative thus emerges with a continuously shifting focus penetrating the interior world of men's fantasies and day-dreams, seeing the things with same objectivity, correcting vanity with raillery and deeper fixations with a cathartic, caricaturist distortion.
Nambiar spared nobody and hit every hard. But he also laughed loudly when he hits and his victims could not resist the whole some, infectious quality of that laughter even while reeling under the chastening blows. The rapacity of the pretty rulers, who looted the people, but were gullible enough to be looted in turn by the astrologer, the vendor of the magical tails-mans and the courtesans, the officials who feathered their own nests by betraying both their masters and the people, the rich Nambootiris who spent their lives in slumber, scandal mongering and flirtations, and the Nairs who clung with absurd pride to the memories of their martial traditions, when the feudal order that supported it was fast decaying, all got boisterous handling. Insisting on an irreducible minimum of social elegance, he even lampooned people with messy hygienic and eating habits.
Nambiar is not intolerant of natural human imperfection. But what he cannot tolerate and must suppress with snubs is the egotism of men who forget their limitations. Nambiar has left an indelible impression upon the people of Kerala. If the present is the age of political rivalries and controversies in Kerala are also quick to see through the pretentious promises of parties and politicians. That is one of the reason why there is such a rapid turn over of political leadership in the state.
Based on different styles of narrative singing, rhythms of dancing, foot work and make-up of the dancer, three varieties of Thullal were evolved in course of time. they are:
1. Ottan Thullal 2. Seethankan Thullal 3. Parayan Thullal
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| Ottan Thullal |
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It consists of a variety of rapid metres well suited for amusing narratives and it is vigorous in execution. The Thullal actor who represents this type has a fascinating costume. His face is painted green. With a round headgear of multi-coloured tinsel and gold, a breast plate to match, a circlet of jingles round his ankles and wearing a frilled skirt round his waist, he sings and dances to the sounding of the cymbals and beating of the drum. Along with singing and dancing, the player acts the incidents narrated in the songs. |
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| Seethankan Thullal |
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It has metres of medium cadence for the songs used and rhythm to suit. In contrast to the picturesque appearance of the dancer in Ottam Thullal, the dancer in Seethankam Thullal has his face unpainted, except for a few black lines, on the eyebrows and eyelids to heighten the expression of the eyes. He wears a crown made out of the tender leaves of coconut palm, with frills of the same material adorning his wrists. |
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| Parayan Thullal |
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This has a slow narrative style for singing, with slow graceful elegant steps, movements and hand gestures. The make-up of a Parayan is very simple except for an ornamental headgear and a red cloth round his waist. The dancer smears the body with charcoal paste. |
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| Koodiyattam |
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The Koodiyattam which emerged by the ninth century was a full-fledged dramatic presentation in Sanskrit, the repertoire including plays by Bhasa, Harsha, Mahendra Pallava and Sanskrit plays by Kerala writers like Saktibhadra and Kulasekhara. The Vidushaka, the comic character, was the only one character who spoke in Malayalam and if he mixed Malayalam and Sanskrit with a deliberately comical intention the practice may still have played a genetic role in the rise of Mani-Pravalam, the language blend in which a substantial quantity of fine poetry was written in the early phases. Another feature associated with Vidushaka left an equally valuable legacy. The Vidushaka was an ironic foil to the hero. For every stanza in Sanskrit recited by the hero praising his lady-love or expressing his romantic longing, the Vidushaka recited another in mocking parody. The most important characteristic of Koodiyattom is its elaborate interpretation of the Sanskrit slokas or stanzas through hand gestures by the various characters and by oral expositions of the Vidushaka.
For the common people, a parallel tradition of sacred recital to Koodiyattam emerged known as Pathakam. The champus was written in Malayalam instead of in Sanskrit by Punam in the fifteenth century and others in every succeeding century. Similar recital emerged as a third level known as Pana-Thottam Humour was invariably present and dominated in all the three categories. But the other aesthetic flavours were in no way neglected. There are passages in Punam which cannot be read without the eyes brimming over. The recited was by one person, he could play many dramatic roles and the form broadly corresponded to the Sanskrit Bhana which had only a single actor. This tradition was finally culminate in the Thullal. The Koodiyattam could not meet the heavy competition from other more popular forms
Koodiyattom is a temple art performed traditionally by a specific community. It belongs to the genre of drama. Koodiyattom is probably the only surviving form of the traditional presentation of Sanskrit drama. Koodiyattom embraces elements of music and dance. The performance is confined to the temple theatres known as Koothambalams, the performing artists belong to specific temple dependant communities known as Chakkiars and Nambiars. The Chakkiars are the actors and the Nangiars of the Nambiar community undertake female roles to the accompaniment of the Mizhavus (pot-like drums covered with animal hide) and Edakka (a small drum played with a stick), Kurumkuzhal (a small wind instrument similar to a Shehnai) and Kuzhithalam (a small pair of cymbals).
The Koodiyattom as it is presented today was choreographed some ten centuries ago by King Kulasekhara Varman with the assistance of his friend Tholan. The form of presentation is highly stylised in Aharya Abhinaya (make-up, costume and scenic spectacle), Angika Abhinaya (gesture) and Vachika Abhinaya (oral rendering). The attempt is to present Puranic characters in a superhuman form, in an epic setting.
The performers use make-up similar to Kathakali but are permitted speech, albeit in a stylised manner. The make-up is symbolic of the nature of the character presented on the stage. At the same time, there is no typifying of characters as in Kathakali.
Koodiyattom plays are not presented in full. Presentation is so elaborate, nowadays these plays are presented only in parts - each part being known by a different name. Each performance is confined itself to one Anka (one act). Since one Anka of the drama alone is performed at one time, there is a prelude to this performance called 'Nirvahana' during which one of the characters sums up the story presented in the earlier acts of the drama and possibly the earlier stories. This 'Nirvahana' takes many days and if this 'Nirvahana' is rendered by the Vidushaka, it is an oral exposition. Other characters use hand gestures for this purpose.
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| Nangiarkoothu |
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Nanniar Koothu is a dance form conducted in some prominent Kerala temples purely as a ceremonial ritual, presented by women only. The Nanniars, who are the womenfolk of the Nambiar community, stage the Nanniar Koothu in a hereditary tradition.
The plot of the Nanniar Koothu staged by Nanniars is the story of Srikrishna. It is presented in solo dance style for twelve consecutive days. The nirvahanam by the cheti is performed as Nanniar koothu. On the first day of the performance of a Nanniar Koothu, nritta (pure dance) is given more importance than abhinaya (acting). The performance begins with a dance called Purvaranga nritta in which many artistic and harmonized movements of the feet and body are shown. No less than 64 charis (rhythmic gaits) were in use in this art form. The Nanniar copy the Maravil Kriya (ritual behind the curtain) dance of Chakyar, who was a veteran acharya of Koothu and add a few charis as an encore for the Purvaranga (preliminary ritual). In the manuscript copy of Nanniar Koothu known as Attaprakaram, there are 208 slokas with details of their acting pattern.
Among the danseuses of ancient Kerala names such as Nangai, Nannai, Nannacci and Talinamma were very common. So it is reasonable to assume that Nanniars were descended from the families of these danseuses or perhaps the Nanniars were descended from the community of the Devadasis of Kerala.
It is in Trichur Vadakkumnatha temple, Ambalapuzha Srikrishna temple, Irinjalakuda Kootalmanikyam temple, Trippunittura Purnatrayeswara temple and Kottayam Kumaranellore Bhagavati temple that Nanniar Koothu is still conducted as a ritual offering though on a nominal scale. In the Vadakkumnatha temple at Trichur and in the Ambalapuzha temple Nanniar Koothu is begun on the day preceding Ashtamirohini day i.e. Sri Krishna's birth day. In the Koodalmanikyam temple at Iringalakuda this Koothu starts in the month of 'Medam' on the star-day 'Uttram' and continues for twelve consecutive days. In the Trippunithura temple this Koothu starts on the Utsava (Festival) day in Chingam month and continues for eight days. Usually the Koothu is held during day time. But on Astami Rohini day the Nanniar Koothu is held at midnight to coincide with the birth. It is also enjoined by the rules of the temple that Krishnavatara must be enacted at that time and not any other story. This custom is not strictly followed now.
Nanniar Koothu is staged in the Koottambalam of temples. But in case of temples having no Koottambalam's, Nanniar Koothu could be conducted in the Oottupura (dining hall). Only on one special occasion can this Koothu be conducted outside the temple precincts. When an Akkittiri (a Brahmin who has Qualified himself to perform yagas) dies and is cremated, Nanniar Koothu is conducted in a temporary shed put up near the burial ground, to ensure purification for the soul of the dead at the place of his cremation and is called Chudala (cremation ground) Koothu. This Koothu is conducted with special care to avoid any blunders for it is widely believed that any short comings would cost the danseuses her life.
In the families known as Villuvattam, Kosampilli, Melatt and Edatt (Nambiar families) there are Nanniras who can conduct Nanniar Koothu. Most of the Nanniars who can handle this art-form now are past sixty years of age. Even among them there is none who can do the whole performance. Most of them can only demonstrate the art from as a ritual. The fact is that for the last many years there has not been any strict training in the art form for lack of encouragement and patronage from temple authorities. This art form with its unique artistic value is on the brink of extinction. The fees for performing Nanniar Koothu is very low and it is a pitiable plight for the artistes engaged in this art form. |
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| Ritual Arts |
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| Theyyam |
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Teyyam is a ritualistic dance with its rare and grotesque make-up and costume, lively foot work, gymnastic fervour and ritualistic vitality. Teyyam represents a glorious period of folk life in Kerala and the souls of the dead heroes of the land and the gods and goddesses are supposed to come in our midst through the medium of the possessed dancers and converse with us on matters of even contemporary significance. It is the worship of spirits by invoking them to the mortal body of the dancer who impersonates them and gives blessing to the believers. Teyyam evolves from Kaliyattam practiced by aboriginal tribes of northern regions of the state. Kaliyattam is an annual festival attached to the shrines known by the names like muchilod, kavu, palliyara, mundya, tanam, madhapura all in the districts of Cannanore.
The performer belongs to Mannan, Velan and Malayan communities. The landlords and chieftains encouraged these artists and introduced many improvements by initiating new themes into its fold and classified them to appropriate communities for their propagation. Titles like Peruvanaan, Perumalayan were the best among them. These spirits continue to be propitiated through generations. They belong to different categories based on their appearance and character.
During epidemics, the whole community join hands in making the offering of the ritual to the presiding spirit of such calamities and appease them. There are several presiding goddesses like Kali, Chamundi, Bhagavati all manifestations of Shakti or supreme power and gods like Bhairavan, Gulikan, Vishnumurthy, Pottan representing the Shaivite and Vaishnavate concepts and animal spirits form another class comprising Bali, Hanuman, Puli. Teyyam dance is done as an offering for begetting children, winning of law suits, warding of evils, getting rid of epidemics and for similar successful culmination of individual and social desires.
Teyyam is essentially a human creation. It has absolute relationship with man in giving vent to his strong feelings against injustice and wickedness and his desire to maintain the well-being of society. It shows how the primitive man transforms his life experience into metaphysical thoughts through rites and rituals and identifies his abstract visions in a concrete design, attributing multiple forms to them.
The headgear or the mask made of materials from nature and painted with natural colours in Teyyam assumes a grotesque and archetypal image with the blending of highly artistic and emotive display. Man willingly offers himself to be subdued by his mystic attainments. It is his own re-creation of the abstract experiences handed down to him by generations, the secular side gives him the rationale based on practice and observations.
A socially known theme of love, like one depicted in the famous Teyyam 'Katiranur Viran' gives a very concrete picture of an extremely abstract emotional content. The theme is recreated with its mythical and ritualistic imagination and the dancer went to the moods through his body postures, movements and articulation. The performer becomes possessed in this act of impersonation of the dead hero or the godly spirit, it does not leave him in totally unconscious state, on the contrary he would meticulously cling on to the rhythm a technique of mechanical perfection even when he is out of his normal mood.
The dancer in Teyyam while passing through the metaphysical experience and getting himself possessed traverses through three stages, the first being one of impersonation which is the negation of his own self and affirmation of something that will help him to affront the supra-sensible vision. The grotesque mask gives him a new personality which is far away from the reality. The second stage helps him to evolve a mental state of flight to mystic heights before which the dancer takes a look at the mirror, which is a meaningful ritual indicating that he get conceived about the identity of deity (Teyyam) which he impersonates. The last stage of impersonation signifies the possessed state which is energised fully by the rhythmic accompaniment. The whole physique and the psyche of the performer get possessed by the mood of the character which he impersonates. His demeanor is not only adjusted to a special rhythm, but also his utterances attuned to a totally non-realistic beyond the consciousness level.
The dancer has to prepare his mind and body to entertain the Teyyam within himself. During the period of austerity, which is prerequisite for any ritualistic art, the dancer concentrates on his favourite deity with extreme devotion. The process of transformation from man to God is an experience which the practitioner of the ritual shares with the congregation around.
In the worship of certain Teyyams, intoxicant liquor as an offering is not forbidden. Kuttichattan, Khantakarnam are among the deities of the tamasic (dark group) for whom liquor is an inevitable item. The practitioners of such Teyyams belongs to the Saktiyas for whom liquor forms an important ingredient of worship in their routine religious practices. To other god heads like 'Daivattar', liquor is strictly prohibited and the artists who impersonate such powers also regard liquor as taboo in their lives.
Theyyam Songs
The full throated singing of tottam songs in the open air, the subdued articulation of the tottam (revelations) and the inaudible chanting of the mantras form different variations of using the inner energy that gushes out while the Teyyam dancer is in a possessed state. The folk singer while he sings out in a loud voice, accompanying the dancing or along with his own dancing steps, uses simple but effective language and straight but thought provoking images. The images reflect his own surroundings charged with an organic strength. Most of these songs are not recorded. They belong to the oral tradition maintaining their own unique characteristics and keep away from the general trend of standardized literature. The major chunk of the Teyyam songs remains well above literary denomination and creates the proper atmosphere with its archaic usages, nuances and rhythmic patterns conveying the subtle emotions of the character impersonated. Teyyam songs belong to a literary tradition of the farthest past which had not evolved through any conscious process of sophistication, but served as life-giving vehicle of the feelings of the village communities.
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| Kalampattu |
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The Kalam in the Kali cult, denotes a floor painting of the goddess. Before the form of the goddess is painted, a Chakra in the tantrik structure is drawn using two colours, white and yellow made respectively of rice and turmeric flour. On the north eastern corner (minakon) is the place in which the image of Kali is proposed to be drawn. At the centre of this drawing, a bronze oil lamp is lit in the belief that with the lighting of the lamp on the Chakra, the goddess has made her divine presence at the spot. Before the lamp is placed on the floor a plantain leaf with offerings to the goddess like paddy, rice, coconut etc is placed.
Painting the image of the goddess, using herbal and grain powders of different kind is a consummate art. The dhulisilpam (the powder made image) attains supreme perfection by meticulous care in furnishing all its subtle details. To paint an image of Kali with sixty-four arms, more than fifteen persons is required. The Kalam is painted in multi colour. The Kalampattu begins with the beginning of the Kalam itself. The Brahmin priest is assigned the privilege of doing the first special puja of the image before the onset of the Kalampattu.
Kalampattu is a kind of song sung by persons belonging to different castes which are lower down in the caste hierarchy. Kaniyan draws the Kalam of Gandharva, and Pulluva that of serpents. Vannan uses a stringed instrument called Nantuni. The Kurup who sings Kalampattu uses a percussion instrument with cymbals and gong as accompaniments.
The paintings of the Kalam commences with a ritual called Uchappattu (noon songs). The Kalam would be completed by evening. The singers sit in a thatched shed in front of the courtyard of the temple or the house in which the ritual is conducted. The shed is decorated elaborately with plantain trunks, with leaves and bunch of fruits, tender coconut leaves, gold coloured tender coconut bunches, mango leaves and flowers. Inside the shed beneath the thatched roofing is a red canopy. The floor is plastered with cow dung. The painting of the goddess is made on this plastered floor. The size and dimension of the image of Kali are decided according to the deity. Normally, the image has sixteen hands with a weapon in each hand. The size of the image can be as big as to have sixty four arms and breasts each big as five paras (measures) of rice heaped and bedecked with paddy stalks malted into delicate forms. Ornaments of a rich variety are drawn on the image with coloured powder. The song goes on without a break round the clock. It starts with an invocation to Ganapathy, the god that clears his devotees path of all hurdles, passes on to the story of the confrontation between Kali and her demon-rival, Darika and ends up with the slaying of the demon by the goddess. The entire song is known by the name tottam, which means 'to awaken the deity'.
To mark the end of the ritual of Kalampattu, the figure of Kali is wiped out, starting from the feet upwards, but keeping the breast untouched. The powder used for painting the breasts is then worshipfully collected for distribution as prasadam to the devotees.
The Kalampattu is associated with some ritualistic dance performances. The dancer is the descendant of a line of ritual dancers, the counterparts of the oracle and the shaman. The ritual dance is known as itum kurum chavittu. The goddess is believed to enter into the body of the ritual dancer and into the Kalam and the presence is manifested differently in the two media. In the dance, the goddess express herself through the ritual dance, while in the Kalam, she makes her presence felt by its flowing patterns and colours. As the ritual dancer gets possessed by goddess, his limbs move and he utters uncontrollably. The movements and utterances rise slowly in a crescendo and reach their highest pitch and then abruptly stop. The possession leaves the body and the dancer falls exhausted and unconscious. The ritual dancer visits the houses of the devotees and receives offerings to the goddess in the form of rice, coconuts which are the symbols of fertility. Kali may bless or curse with her disease, the small pox. Such blessing or curse is considered her playfullness or revelry, 'amma vilayattam'. If Kali is wreaking her wrath, the disease might take a fatal turn and is taken to be an omen of impending doom on the land.
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| Mudiyettu |
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This is a more elaborate and dramatic form of ritual dance in which the Kali cult emerges in all its entirety. This is Mudiyettu, the portrayal of the fight between Kali and Darika, ending up with the slaying of Darika. Mudiyettu begins with Kalamazhikkal (wiping out of the floor painting). Mudiyettu literally means the placing of the crown on the head. The moment the person impersonating Kali in the ritual dance drama, wears the headgear, he get possessed and remains possessed all through the night in the battle scenes that ensue. Kali as well as her rival have their attendants and battalions. On the side of the Kali are the Kalis (her attendant spirits), Koimpidar (a character probably representing the virtuous in society) who sides with all righteous causes. Darika is accompanied by Danava, who joins hands with him in the fight with Kali. There is a vigorous acting in the drama which has no set stage for the enactment. The fight take place at several points in the courtyard around the temple. The facial makeup of Kali shows the boils of small pox, dots of white marks, with rice paste. Kali when made up closely resembles the Kalam drawn on the floor |
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| Kotamuri |
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In Kotamuri, the cow is held as the symbol of prosperity of the village. The vegetative cult find its identity with the social context in the form of a ritual in which a young boy is made up as Kotamuri. A protruding wooden cow face is fitted on a frame tucked into the boys waist. A couple or so of jesters wearing masks painted on green sheaths, dance to the rhythm of songs by the accompanying singers. They crack jokes on social themes of immediate relevance. The party visits houses in the village and collects grain and other presents in the name of the cow of prosperity. The following lines from a song on the cow speaks eloquently and succinctly on its beautiful nature.
"Whenever Kotamuri treads her way,
Grain and money hold their sway".
The song deals with how the goddess of prosperity, 'Annapurna' came to Kerala from the land of Aryans. She sets out on a journey in a ship with her retinue and reaches 'Cherukunnu' where she is idolised and consecrated. There are references in the song about different varieties of rich seeds imported to Kerala.
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| Poorakali |
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Poorakali is a temple festival in the northern areas of Kerala, held in the Bhagavathy temples extending for nine days in the Malayalam month of Meenam. This festival celebrates the rejoicing on the rebirth of Kama, the god of love and the enjoyment of people in regaining the feelings of love that were lost when Kama was burnt by the third eye of Shiva. Poorakkali combines in itself, the rich elements of dance, music, martial art, literature, poetry and philosophy. In a particular section in this repertoire, known as 'Andum Pullum', it is described how Shiva and Parvathy in the guise of Pulluvan and Pulluvathy approach Indra, the celestial ruler and procure the land and seeds for cultivation on earth. It also portrays how Indra magnanimously showers rain for a rich crop. |
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| Parichamuttukali |
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It is a group dance with the dancers holding sword and shield made of wood. With a major stress on the Kerala folk tunes, the rhythmic mould of these being shaped from the meaningless syllables which form the language of the folk instruments. The dancers tie a string of bells around the ankles and they move in a circle. For Parichamuttukali, the dancers have to undergo rigorous training in Kalari. |
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| Sarpam Thullal or Pampi Thullal |
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There exists an elaborate ritualistic ceremony called Pampinthullal (serpent dance) conducted for propitiating the serpent gods. This ceremony takes place during the Malayalam months of Kanni, Thulam, Kumbham and Medam. The Ayilyam (the Aslesha star) on which falls the birthday of serpents is held auspicious for the serpent dance ceremony. The monsoon months are avoided for the ceremony since the serpents would refuse to come out of their subterranean abodes during this season.
Pampinthullal is conducted in the temporary sheds attached to the serpent grove or constructed in front of the courtyard of the house. A thatched shed with its floor plastered with cow dung and elaborate floral decorations around is made. Kalams of the serpent gods are drawn on the floor using powders of different colours. Bronze oil lamps are lighted in the Kalam with offerings of coconut and rice placed before the lamp. Pampinthullal is made to propitiate all five varieties of serpent gods - Nagaraja (the king serpent), Nagayakshi (the queen serpent), Karinagam (black serpent), Paranagam (flying serpent) and the Anchilamaninagam (five-hooded and jewel-carrying serpent). Pampinthullal usually lasts for five days, with one of the varieties propitiated on each day. The process of the ritual starts with the whole village participating in the festivities, the Mannan plucking the flower, bunches from the areca and the veluthedan (washer man) bringing the mattu (washed clothes). The Pulluvan is the chief priest who officiates at the ceremony and sings about the serpents in chorus to the accompaniment of instruments played by males and females. The ceremony starts in the morning with songs in praise of Ganapathy at the place where the Kalam is to be made. By noon the images of serpents would have been completed on the floor. The musical score in front of the Kalam ensues when the Paniyal (the representative of the family on whom the effects of the rituals are concentrated) is seated. There may be more than one Paniyal known as 'Kappum Kanyavum' (one boy and one girl) sitting, each with a petal of the areca flower as recipients of the blessings of the serpents. They get possessed and dance with the flower in hand to the accompaniment of the music of the Pullavas, the tempo of which goes in arithmetical progression, reaching the maximum pace. The Paniyal enters the Kalam and rubs the figure of the nagas with the flower bunch. In case the Paniyal does not get possessed or in fury, tries to destroy the decorations, the devotees take it as an indication that the rituals have not brought the desired result. The whole ceremony will then have to be repeated
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| Velakali |
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Velakali, a dance evolve from the martial culture, is performed in some temples as a spectacle during festivals in which the whole village participates. This dance originated in Ambalapuzha which gained importance in the16th century AD as a coastal principality ruled by a Brahmin Raja having the family name 'Devanarayana'. Most of these Rajas were great patrons of art and learning. One Devanarayana who lived in the18th century had encouraged many poets and artists in his royal court. During the 17-18th centuries, the coastal principality of Ambalpuzha had commercial contacts with the Portuguese and Dutch. Several wars were fought in the sea with these powers by the raja and his predecessors. Velakali was conceived as a reminiscence of these armed conflicts, a re-enactment of those wars waged in the sea and land. The dance form assumed the shape of an earlier art called Naikkan Tullal.
Velakali is basically a group dance held in the open air as an exhibition of the martial feats in front of the raja of Ambalapuzha, who wanted to see how his soldiers had waged the battles. This show meant to be witnessed by the deity of the temple which is taken out in procession to the courtyard of the temple on a caparisoned elephant. The play consist of a procession in the beginning in which, the dancers walk in line through the village road holding the sword made of rattan in the right-hand and a shield in the left. They move elegantly keeping their pace to the rhythm followed by a hilarious group of villagers encouraging the dancers by jumping and singing and waving small colourful flags. By dusk 'Kulathil vela' or the play on the bank of the tank commences. The dancers take their position on the bank of the temple tank and with weapons in their hands start the play moving their bodies. Their movements get reflected in the water probably reminding one of the war in the sea or lakes. On the other side of the tank the caparisoned elephant with the deity takes position. The dancers do not change their position but exhibit only the swaying of their bodies to the rhythm of Velappara, the main percussion instrument. Then the dancers disperse to assemble again in the southern quadrangle of the temple to start the regular exhibition of the feats. There the deity appears on the elephant. By about 8.p.m 'Tirumunpil vela' or the play before the divine presence of the deity, start. All the numbers in the repertoire of Velakali, consisting of solo, dual and group performances of the Payattu (fight) are shown in detail.
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| Patayani |
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Patayani is a ritualistic dance, which literally means an array of common people. Patayani involves many powerful themes of esoteric appeal. The whole village activity corporate in this popular art. The figures in Patayani consists of Pisachu, Kali, Karakkura, Pillatini, Bhairavi, Kalan etc. The masks are painted with a grotesque surrealistic touch. The round eyes and the triangular ears and abnormal size of the head gear give a touch of super human dimension.
Pillatini literally means one who devours. In the song accompanying the dance a child is described as dwelling the blue mountains top from where she is invoked by the chanting of meaningless syllables and with burning torches (making them blaze by throwing of a powder). The spirit is supposed to descend from the heights and occupy the painted mask of sheath worn by the dancer. This Kolam is called 'Pillatini' because its main action is pouncing on a symbolic child with a cannibalistic hunger. This Kolam is danced as a ritual to ward off evil eye on a family or its off springs. Kalan Kolam is another variety in the Patayani with black colour predominating the facial make up of the dancer. Kalan is the god of death. The Kolam appears as the symbol of time and shows how the human soul (in the epic theme of Markandeya) is chased by Yamadharma. The narrative of the story tells about a Brahmin who had no children. He performed penance to Lord Shiva who asked the Brahmin whether he wanted a child with little intelligence who would live for a hundred years or one who was highly intelligent but would have a short life. The Brahmin asked for a great and glorious child. This is how Markandeya was born. He was destined to live for sixteen years only. When his sixteenth year came Markandeya started rigorous penance. When Yama visited him, he embraced the Sivalinga so that Yama could not take him away without involving the Sivalinga also. While Yama tried to take the life of the boy Shiva opened his third eye and Yama was turned to ashes. This drama is enacted in Kalan Kolam. The character of Shiva is not represented as such. The last moments of the pangs of death of the god of death form a dramatic sequence. The actor rushed into the crowd and creates in the congregation a sense of contact with the invisible world, people move away in awe. Sometimes the Kolam snatches away a boy from the crowd signifying the hunt of Markandeya. In a subtle way, the same actor enacts the chaser and the chased suggesting the unending drama of life and death. There also emerges a third concept of 'Kala Kala' the supreme custodian of time or the destroyer of the destroyer. The great cosmic dancer, Shiva is symbolized in the ritual and the Kolam is also known as 'Kalari' or the enemy of Kala.
Kala is defeated by Kala Kala who ultimately subjects himself to extreme suffering, struggles hard and collapses only to be awakened to resume the drama of chase. Lord Shiva again comes to bring back Yama to real life.
Patayani is associated with the Devi (goddess) temples of Central Travancore area. At least in a dozen village temples the art finds its existence, with the active corporation of the villagers who share the ritual experience and the responsibilities. The Velan (the sorcerer) plays on his percussion instrument 'Para' when the areca tree is uprooted and ceremoniously placed at the temple premises as the flagstaff of the festival for 28 days which has to conclude on the 'Bharani' day in the month of Meenam. The 'Velichappadu' who is from the Nayar caste gets possessed and dances to the rhythm of the Para and officiates the ritual of uprooting and placing the flagstaff with the help of the villagers. The Mannan (village washerman) who is also in charge of plucking coconuts supplies the areca sheaths and other materials with which the masks are made. The Kaniyan paints the masks. On the next day of the flag hosting ceremony, the villagers assemble in the temple around 10 in the night with lighted torches and go thrice around the shrine articulating meaningless syllables meant for invoking the subordinate spirits who pay homage to the main deity. This is technically called 'Chuttupatayani' or Patayani with torches. This process continue for 18 days. On the 19th day the villagers reach the temple in procession singing boat songs in group in a rhythm peculiar to the rowing of a country boat. In front of the temple before a lighted lamp the neighbouring villagers conduct a group dance called 'Kappoli' as a gesture of corporation to the celebrations. In dancing they show a number of acrobatic martial feat accompanied by singing. The first item proper in the series is 'Tavati' in which six to seven experts dance the basic rhythms of Patayani to the accompaniment of the drum called 'Tappu' a round wooden instrument covered with thick hide.
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| Martial Arts |
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| Kalaripayattu |
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Kalari is a martial art of Kerala. The origin of the Dravidian word Kalari itself is doubtful, whether it is derived from the Sanskrit word Khalurika or vice versa. The meaning of the word is - a parade place for military exercises. The word is used to mean both military training centre and a place for acquisition of knowledge. Kalari also means a temple where the family deity presides. The word has also other meanings like assembly, business place etc.
Kalari has no accompanying instruments to punctuate its movements. The locomotion and bodily throws and thrusts of the practitioner are done according to verbal instructions of the teacher (Gurukkal) which are articulated in the mould of a special rhythm. Kalari is responsible mainly for the stronger elements of Kerala's dance and culture. Kalari practices gives to any dancer, female or male, proper grounding for developing skillfulness and flexibility of body. The basic stance of Kathakali resembles that of Kalari very much. The 'Chuzhippu' in Kathakali has directly sprung from the 'Vadivu' in Kalari. A Vadivu starts with a static pose which later gets charged with movement. Gaja (elephant), Aswa (horse), Kukkuta (cock), Marjara (cat), Narasimha (half lion and half man - Vishnu's incarnation), Matsya (fish) and Sarpa (snake) are poses which a student of Kalari practices as a part of his offence and defence exercises. The tandava type of movement in Kalari developed from the tradition comprising various group and individual martial forms inherited from the tribal society. One of the peculiarities of the concept of movement in the Kalari system is that it is conceived as a kind of expression of an inner urge or bhava. The term 'Sarirabhava' generally used in Kalari rightly emphasises this point and it has great relevance to Indian concept of acting. The four components of Kalari are angika, aharyya, vachika and satvika, though the practice of Sarirabhava teaches the rudimentary lessons of the combination of angika and satvika.
Kalari culture is known to Kerala from pre historic days. But there were Kalaris belonging to many communities of Dravidian origin like Pulaya and Parayas also. There was a developed system of medicine, practiced in all Kalaris and this formed a branch of Ayurveda. This system of medicine known as 'Kalari Marma Chikitsa' has earned wide popularity. Chanting of mantras without sound is also done for concentrating the mind. Now the mantras have gone out of use and Kalari is only practiced as a means of physical exercise and medicine.
There are few Kalari institutions and individual gurus in the stage engaged in continuing this system in this pristine form. Among them, C.V.N Kalari is a leading institution. The late Sri C.V Narayanan Nair Gurukkal (in whose memory the C.V.N Kalari has been established), his son Gurukkal C.V Govindankutty Nair, the late Sri. Sridharan Nair of Chirakkal are some of the prominent names in the field of Kalari.
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| Chavettupada |
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In the feudal society of Kerala there were suicide squads, whose motto was to kill or get killed. These dare-devil type of soldiers were known as Chavettupada. The members of the squads were dedicated to the presiding deities of famous temples and the soldiers were supposed to carry out the orders of the goddess in fighting the enemies. The soldiers were given rigorous training in the martial arts and were maintained for the protection of famous temples. The tendency to give physical training to the whole society resulted in many disastrous consequences like constant enmity between classes and the resultant bloodshed. But training in physical fitness helped in keeping a healthy community. |
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| Music - Introduction |
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Kerala has shared the general musical culture of peninsular India from the earliest times. South Indian music is generally known as 'Karnatic music' because of its common features. Each region of the south has its own culture. Kerala's music is known as Sopanam. Sangeetam (Music) appears to have acquired its name from the 'Sopanam' which means 'Sanctum Sanctorum' of the temple. Its essential features were born out of a happy blending of the Vedic, the folk and tribal music of the region.
The characteristic features of this music are, simple structure and peculiar forms of expression.
The structure of the Sopanam music is believed to reflect the experience of the devotee in ascending the heights of devotion. Sopanam music developed and became popular through the practice of singing invocatory songs in front of the 'Kalam' of Kali (floor drawing of Kali) and later on at the sanctum of the temple. There are a few powerful schools connected with the temples like Pazhoor, Tiumandhamkunnu, Guruvayoor, Ramamangalam. In these temples, this music had been hereditarily practiced by temple singers. Neralattu Rama Poduval of Tirumandhamkunnu bani, Janardhanan Nedungadi of Guruvayoor, Damodara Marar belonging to the Mudiyettu bant of Pazhoor are some of the most effective experts.
Sopanam music as it is practiced in different schools, maintains its rustic nuances with the feeling of devotion as its basic quality. From the temple sanctum this music has taken many diversions and grown as dance music in Ashtapadiyattam; the mould of which was later adopted by Krishnanattam, devotional music in Kalam pattu and dramatic music in Mudiyettu and Kathakali. In spite of its ramified developments, it failed to become pure concert music.
The system got the greatest rejuvenation when 'Geet Govindam' was introduced to Kerala in the local musical mould during the14th and 15th centuries A.D. It was certainly a revival of the pattu school of music which was preserved in the devotional tyanis (simple prayers of two line structure, sung at the sanctum of the temple along with different puja- ceremonial rites- at each time of the day). The musician is inspired by the particular time, when the offering is made to the deity and he selects ragas which is most suited for that time. Such ragas are known as Samaya (time) ragas because time is the deciding factor in singing. The singing of tyanis takes its roots from the music of the earliest singers of the land as mentioned in the great text 'Chilappatikaram'.
The value of Kerala music, its primitiveness, nativity and spontaneity can be assessed from its rudimentary usage preserved in the rustic musical and dance forms of a wide variety. The region has maintained in its flourishing repertoire some of the rare melodies specially conceived for the purpose of embellishment of certain emotions. These melodies are 'Pati', Indisa', 'Puraniru', 'Kanakurinji'.
Certain other ragas like 'Sri kandi', 'Desakshi', 'Nalatha' and 'Samantamalahari' used in old devotional songs, can produce remarkably fascinating lilt and swing of a local character. The rhythm accompaniment to those songs with instruments like edakka, maddalam and chenda creates a parallel process of graceful rhythmic music bringing out the universality of sentiments with musical roots reaching into the past.
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| Music - Literary works |
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The genius of the people of Kerala for music could be seen from the days of 'Chilappatikaram'.
'Chilappatikaram' was originally conceived as a treatise of isai (music) which had two divisions; pan (full fledged raga) and tiran (its off shoot or Janya raga). There were innumerable varieties of tunes of ancient music created as a result of the combination of these pans and tirans. 'Chilappatikaram' (epic of Anklets), is a great integrative work. The author was a Chera Prince. The musical culture revealed in the work is very advanced. Vocal music had evolved to a high aesthetic sensitiveness and great technical sophistication. A variety of stringed instruments and percussion instruments are mentioned.
The rulers of the land managed to be adept in music. Kulasekhara of the fourteenth century and his brother Aditya Varma were great musicians. Aditya Varma has to his credit, the Vadasseri inscription of 1333 and also the fine message poem-' Unnineeli Sandesam'. Veera Kerala Varma, the great soldier- litterateur of the seventeenth century, translated Valmiki's 'Ramayana', composed a beautiful hymn of eight stanzas which has dexterously woven into its lyrical text the names of two dozen ragas.
Lyrical and musical masterpiece of the twelfth century, Jayadeva's 'Gita Govinda' drifted down to south and provided some stimulus to the rise of the dance-drama, Kathakali. In the eighteenth century, Ramapurath Warrier translated it into Malayalam. In many songs, he has scored the lyrics to the same ragas and talas as in the original, but in some cases he has attempted innovation.
The eighteenth century ruler of Travancore, Balarama Varma wrote an important treatise on music and dance entitled 'Balarama Bharatam'. He follows Bharata and the accent in his analysis is on dance, for which music is an indispensable accompaniment and embellishment. The treatment of music is detailed, especially valuable being descriptive classification of percussion, string and wind instruments. Texts like the 'Sangita-Santram', the 'Sangita-Chudamani', the 'Sangita-Manjari', the 'Svarata-ladi-Lakshanam' etc belong to much earlier epochs. The publication and translation of these works will greatly enrich Indian musicology. There is a wealth of material in these texts. The 'Sangita-Chudamani' describes ninety ragas, several of them, have one hundred and one talas. Kunchan Nambiar created the dance recital form known as the Thullal. He composed many ragas like Mohana, Dvijavanti, Ananda Bhairavi and a variety of talas.
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| Music - Swati Thirunal |
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The greatest figure in Kerala's musical tradition who ranks one among the greatest personalities in the history of the Karnatic system of Indian music is Swati Tirunal. He wrote eight works, six of them in Sanskrit and two in Malayalam. They are mostly hymns and commentaries. His greatest contribution was in music. His musical compositions are supposed to number over five hundred.
Swati's ambition was to assimilate the best in all traditions and reutilize the native heritage. He invited to his court Kannayya, the disciple of Tyagaraja; the brothers Vadivelu, Meru Swami from Maharashtra; Lakshmana Das from Gwalior and Suleiman and Allauddin who were the exponents of the Hindustani music
Swati has given songs in Sanskrit, Hindi, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam. Besides 'Kritis', typical of the south, he has composed Dhrupads, Tappas and Khayals. Several of the compositions are in rare ragas like Saranganatta, Lalita Panchamam, Mohana Kalyani Dvijavanti and Gopika Vasantam. Some of these sacred songs are epitomes in a miniature, of the Ramayana and Mahabharata. One of his brilliant achievement is Ragamala on the ten incarnations of Vishnu. Each stanza is a different raga. In many of his compositions he worked the name of the raga into the lyrical text in such a way that it becomes a word meaningfully fitted into narrative. He managed it in Ragamalas and in one instant, in a ragamala in Hindi. The syllables pertaining to percussion instruments have been skillfully interwoven into the texture of some compositions like Nrityati in 'Sankarabharanam' and Sankara Sri in 'Hamsnandi'. The starting point in his kritis are varied. In Smarajanaka he has used atitagraha i.e. the song starts before the first beat of tala, slow and fast tempi are dexterously interwoven in kritis like Karunakara in Begada and Bhogindra in Kuntalavarali.
This virtuosity reached astonishing heights in the class of compositions known as Varnams. They are longer composition than kirtanas. Here Swati tried to weave the phemomes sa, ri, ga, ma which are the standard notation for the scale notes, into the lyrical text where they become accented and therefore conspicuous phonetic elements of words meaningfully used.
Swati was aiming at some pervasive spread of musical culture. He laid down what ragas should be sung or rendered in instrumental music every day at the Padmanabha temple, Trivandrum. He composed kirtans for this daily service. He composed a Garland of nine gems, nine compositions. One for each day of Dussehra festival. He had cadjan leaf copies made of these compositions and distributed them to other centres in the state as well as outside it.
The stabilization of classical music in daily and seasonal ritual was a historical stop in the evolution of Kerala's musical tradition. Swati introduced the Harikatha or sacred recital from Maharashtra with the help of Meruswami. He invited Meruswami to his court especially for this purpose. The ruler himself wrote three extended compositions for such recitals. He has used Abhangas, Dinders and Chhands which are Marathi song moulds.
The language medium is a very important factor in this type of endeavour to spread musical culture through religion. People in all the four language areas of the south, sing 'Tyagarajas' compositions. They are in Telugu and the majority of musicians and music students rendering often violates the spirit and mood of the lyric and it becomes merely technical gymnastics. By composing songs in Malayalam and fairly simple Sanskrit, Swati tried to eliminate this danger.
In every one of his kirtans, Tyagaraja has worked his name into the lyrical text as a sort of signature. Swati preferred to use the name of the family deity, Sri Padmanabha. In the case of Swati, the human soul becomes the maiden consumed by passionate longing for union with God's love. One of the kirtans expresses the emotions of a love lorn maid as the night deepens and each of its eight divisions goes by without her lover arriving. It is a ragamala of eight ragas. The first raga is Sankarabharanam, the mode usually sung at nightfall and the last is Bhupala, the raga sung at the hour before dawn. The poetic tissue is rich in the familiar conceits of the Sanskrit tradition. Swati brought in many Bharata Natya exponents from the neighbouring state, Tamil Nadu. Swati contributed to the dance tradition in Kerala by composing fifty padams in Malayalam.
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| Music - Composers & Singers |
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Govinda Marar, one of the luminaries of Swati's court was an exceptionally brilliant singer. Best concert singers can handle only three tempi- fast, medium and slow. Marar was the only one who could sing in six. This explains the honorific title 'Shatkala' usually prefixed to his name.
Parameswara Bhagavathar was another gifted singer of Swati's court. He was a composer too. His most famous work being the Varnam. Irayimman Thampy, a relative of Swati and a close associate in musical activities is the only musician who has composed all the three major forms of the Karnatic tradition, varnam, kirtanam and padam in Malayalam. His total output includes twenty eight kirtanams in Sanskrit and five in Malayalam, five varnams and twenty two padams, besides several Kathakali librettos and narrative poems. Some of the compositions are in very rare ragas like jangla, manchi and kakuba.
Kuttikunja Thankachi, daughter of 'Tampu', is a prolific litterateur and composer. She wrote three Kathakali and one Thullal librettos, one drama, three narrative poems for the traditional Tiruvathira dance, two poems on the kirata-arjuna and the Nala-Damayanti stories in the gypsy song mould and two others on the religious legends associated with Thiruvananthapuram and Vaikom. She wrote six kirtanams, two of them in Sanskrit. One of the kirtanams, a homage to goddess Kartyayani in Raga Kamboji, is a composition of great classical weight.
K.C.Kesava Pillai is another great composer of Kerala whose output has astonishing variety, three Kathakali librettos, a musical play and over seventy kirtanams for classical singers. The kirtanams are all devotional. The next one is Kandathil Varghese Mapilla. He composed several devotional songs which could be used by all who were truly religious. He also wrote a premier on music where he gave definitions of ragas and talas and prescriptions for the practice of singing in simple verses which could be easily memorized.
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| Folk Songs |
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There is a very rich folk song tradition in Kerala. Farmers, peasants; ploughing or harvesting and the boat men plying the oars on the palm-fringed back waters, forgot the tedium of toil by singing songs. Then the happiness of the harvest season, of the sacramental union of man and woman, of the advent of progeny also found expression in beautiful melodies.
Many classical composers also used this songs. Irayimmam Tampy, wrote a lyric for the melody of the traditional lullaby which is one of the most beautiful songs of this kind in Malayalam. Another lullaby melody was chosen by Cherrusseri in the fifteenth century to retell the Krishna story from the Bhagavatha in mellifluous verse in a Kavya of classical dimensions with forty-seven cantos. The boat song melody was used by Ramapurath Warrier in the eighteenth century for a fine narrative poem on the story of 'Kuchela' and by Kumaran Asan, for another narrative poem on the great compassion of the Buddha and the disciples who were inspired by him.
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| Mappilapattukal |
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The Muslim arts forms reflect the day to day life of the community through the songs which are generally known as Mappila Pattukal. These songs represent a long tradition of a happy blending of Arab and local elements of music. The language used in these songs represents a mixture of Arab, Persian, Urdu, Hindi, Tamil, Sanskrit and Kannada. It is believed that the rich literature of Mopla songs has a long history going back to 700 years. The oldest known Mopla songs were mostly devotional dealing with the life of religious people. The earlier songs were extremely lyrical, highly imaginative and humanistic and earthly. These songs sung in rituals, household ceremonies like marriage and as a vocal accompaniment for dances. Love, heroism and devotion to God are the basic sentiments in these songs. The working people among the Muslim sing these songs to minimise the monotony and weariness of labour. There are songs which prop esoteric appeal. The songs of an erotic nature known as 'kess' are considered to be later addition. |
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| Christian Songs |
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There were a lot of Christian songs in the pattu literature which were meant to propagate the Christian faith. One of the main songs deals with the life and deeds of St. Thomas. In the songs there is a touch of western music but the tunes are not all western. There is a very interesting blending of the folk tunes of Kerala. "Hitta Hinda Teyyakka Timrutai" forms the rhythmic basis for the lines. It is not the exact metre that is fixed by the meaningless syllables but only the pattern of rhythm. These songs were popular among the Christians converted from the lower castes of Hindu society whereas the aristocratic church songs, especially those sung in mass. It used to keep stronger ties with the Suriani music. But slowly these also came to be influenced by the folk tunes |
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| Architecture |
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| Budhist & Jaina Vestiges |
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Kerala has no extant Buddhist monastery. But images of Buddha ascribable from the seventh to the ninth centuries have come to light from the places like Karumadi Mavelikkara, Bharanikavu and Pallikkal in the districts of Alleppey and Quilon in South Kerala. The discovery of an image of Buddha at Marudurkulangara, near Thiruvananthapuram, bearing the stamp of the Anuradhapuram tradition from Sri Lanka the image has been dated stylistically the seventh or eighth century. Of the Buddhist monasteries in Kerala, the most renowned was one known as Srimulavaasam identified generally with Tirumulpadam of the Paliyam plates of the Ay King Vikramaditya Varaguna recording the grant of land to the Bhattaraka of Tirumulpadam. A Vihara of the same name (Mulasava) is mentioned in the Mushika-Vamsa a Sanskrit epic of about the eleventh century, composed by Atula, the court-poet of the Mushika King Vikramarama. The monastery was about to be engulfed by encroaching sea. The image of Bodhisattva Lokanatha of this monastery attained renown throughout India and its representation is preserved in the Cambridge University Manuscript dated to AD 1015. It depicts the figure of a four-armed standing Lokanatha white in colour, with the inscription Daskhinpatha Mulavasa-Lokananta. The Bodhisattva is shown accompanied by two attendants. Tara with a blue lotus and Bhrukuti with a lotus and a water pot.
The Jaina monuments, mostly ascribable to the period from the ninth to the eleventh centuries, are available over different parts of Kerala. The most impressive one, amongst the rock-shelters, is the Tiruchcharanattumalai, near Chitral district Kanyakumari. One the side of natural cavern formed by an over hanging rock are sculptured a number of Tirthankara figures apart from some inscribed votive images carved the visitors hailing from distant places. Of these relief's, the most important are Parsvanatha, Mahavira, Padmavati and Ambika, the last with the lion mount. An important inscription here, is the one belonging to the Ay king Vikramaditya Varaguna, and it records the gift of some golden ornaments to the Bhatariyar of the Tirichcharaanattumalai. After the mid-third century it was converted into a Bhagavati shrine.
There is a Jaina rock-shelter at Kallil, near Perumpavur, at Ernakulam district which was later transformed into a Bhagavati shrine. On the facade of this rock shelter is carved an unfinished seated image of Mahavira, represented also on the back wall of the cavern.
Of the structural temples, the ruined site of Sakkiyar Bhagvati Shrine at Godapuram, near Alattur in Palaghat district deserves special mention as it is associated with two Jaina figures, Mahavira and Parsvanatha, now in the Trishur museum and an inscription of the tenth century. At present, the site is represented by a few buried structures and some scattered architectural pieces. Palaghat proper has also a Jaina temple dedicated to the eighth Trithankara Chandraprabha. In front of the present temple stands the basements of an earlier shrine, a headless Jina figure, of the ninth / tenth century sealed in the vajra-Payranka pose was recovered from the site. Sultans Battery also known as Ganapati-Vattam, has the ruins of a Jaina Basti, which may be dated to the fourteenth century. It is an example of cloistered temple built entirely a granite.
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| Architecture - Mosques |
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Kerala occupies hardly any place in the history of Indo-Islamic architecture. There are innumerable mosques in Kerala none of them shows any grand architectural form so conspicuous in the imperial and provincial styles of the Indo-Islamic architecture through out the sub-continent. Kerala came in contact with Islam, perhaps earlier than in many parts of India. It is said that one Malik-Ibn-Dinar was the first Muslim to land at Crangannur (Cannanore) along with his family. He built the first mosque there, followed by eight more along the coast. The extant mosque at Crangannur, a lofty two-storied building with tiled roofs, does not disclose any feature that may be dated to the seventh century AD. Its outer walls are built on an abhisthana, similar to any Brahmanical temple. There are corridor's on all the four sides of the central hall mean for prayers, with a mihrab on the western wall. In many respects this is a common plan of mosque in Kerala
The Arab traders, introduced Islam to Kerala, during the eighth or ninth century.
The mosque architecture in Kerala must have considerable heights between the thirteenth and the sixteenth centuries-the period of Arab supremacy in the maritime trade with Malabar. In the graveyard called Para Palli at Kollam district and Kozhikode are to be seen a number of epitaphs of the thirteenth century. There are at least two graves in the compound of the Jami-Masjid at Madayi belonging to the same period. The mosque known as Kollampalli at Quilon has an inscription on the mihrab registering its gift by Amir Agmad, son of Abul-i-Fath of Kazrum in AD.1326. A bilingual inscription from the Muchchandipalli, Calicut, ascribable to the thirteenth century, clearly states that the mosque and the quarters for the main and muadhdhin were built by shihabid-Din Raihan, a freed slave out of his own money.
Some epigraphically evidences on the renovation of mosques are also available. The Parpil Muhyiu'd-Dins mosque at Calicut was built in AD 958 (AD.1551) renovated in AH 1197. The Kannamkulangara at chaliyam, at Kozhikode district has yielded an inscription giving AH 756 ( AD 1335) as the date of reconstruction of the mosque. An inscription from the Jami-Majid at Quilandy, Kozhikode district, speaks of the construction of the mosque in AH 999(1590-91) and its reconstruction by the people of the town in AH 1186 (AD 1772-73).
The mosques in Kerala are generally covered structure comprising a large prayer hall in the centre with covered verandhas on all the sides. They resemble the storeyed residential buildings and have their walls made of laterite blocks. Many mosques in Kerala share the same features as the ones noticed there in the Brahmanical tradition. The mosque at Patalayini Kollam had its dome covered, like the Brahmanical temples, with sheets of copper. The Jama-Masjid at Tannur, district Malappuram has a gate or gopura covered with copper sheeting. Of more than two dozen mosques at Ponnani, at Malappuram district, the most important is the Jama -Masjid, three storeyed building with tiled roofs. Like the stupis of the Brahmanical temples, it is also crowned by five pinnacles. A small structure known as Makhdums house, within the complex, has its roof covered with copper sheets and is also pinnacled. But the mosque was constructed in AH 956 (AD,1549-50) and perhaps renovated in AH 1167 (AD1753-54). Like the mosque at Cranganur it has abasement similar to the abhisthana of the Brahmanical temples. Pillars near the main entrance, like those in the Brahmanical tradition, show alternatively square and octagonal sections. At the same time, some of the mosques unlike the temple tradition show the employment of arches. The outer walls of the Jami Masjid at Ponnani are pierced on all the sides by doors while the inner walls have several arched openings.
Wood has been extensively used in the super structure and in the construction of ceilings. But the wooden pulpits (mimbar) in mosques are the best examples of wood-carvings associated with the Islamic architecture in Kerala. There are a few inscriptional evidences also about the construction of and repairs to pulpits. An inscription on a wooden plank on the pulpit (mimbar) in the Jami-Masjid at Baypore at Kozhikode district, records its construction in AD 1132 (AD1719-20) by a ship-master (nakhuda). The one at the Mithqual mosque at Calicut was built in AH 1088 (AD 1677-78), while the pulpit in the Jami-Masjid at the same place was repaired by a ship-master in AH,1094 (AD 1682-83).
Compared to the pulpits, the mosques themselves are unpretentious monuments and completely utilitarian in character. The closed prayer hall and sloping tiled roofs have been used to combat the phenomenon of heavy rainfall but this alone does not fully explain their austere architectural features. In other parts of India, the Indo-Islamic architecture drew its main inspiration from the Persian and Turkish traditions, unsurpassed in the architectural wealth and artistic vision. This trend never reached the shores of Malabar, where the Arabic tradition of simplicity of structural form had combined itself with the indigenous style of Kerala, there by giving rise to a new type of mosque architecture.
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| Architecture - Churches |
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Tradition has it that Apostle St.Thomas who is said to have landed at Muziris in AD 52, built seven churches in Kerala. The first wave of Christianity to Kerala must have come from West Asia. Inscriptions for instance of the times of Sthanu Ravi (844-85) and Vira Raghava Chakravarti (AD1225) clearly reveal the Christian communities enjoyed many rights and privileges.
It is widely known that early churches in the Roman world, including West Asia, initiated the plan of Civil Basilica having a semi circular termination, and with certain modifications for better fulfillment of liturgical needs. On the other hand, Kerala adopted a temple plan comprising a four-sided sanctuary fronted by a larger pillared hall, which in the Christian tradition became chancel and nave respectively. Similarly the tower over the sanctuary possibly soared higher than of the nave as in the Hindu temple, the Sikhara above the garbha-griha has the maximum height. This type of church-architecture can still be seen in Kerala.
In the Orthodox Syrian Church at Chengannur, Peter and Paul occupy the places of the dwarapalas of the Hindu shrine. A portico, called sala in front is often provided to shelter pilgrims during festive occasion. The absence of benches or pews reflects a sense of adjustment to the prevailing Indian custom of squatting or kneeling on the floor. Again, many Syrian churches have an impressive gate way with a musical hall above, which may be an adoption from the Brahmanical practices in temples. The open air cross in front of the main entrance recalls the tradition of placing balipitha or dipa-stamba, near the entrance of the Hindu shrine. Church architecture in Kerala evolved out of an indigenous building tradition and basically the same trend continued till recently despite the impact of later ecclesiastical architecture of Europe.
It was Portuguese who introduced the new trend of Church-architecture in the sixteenth century; followed by the latinization of churches in Kerala. Santo Antonio, now St. Francis at Cochin is the earliest church built in India in the new tradition. It has been raised on a plan similar to the earlier types prevalent in Kerala though in elevation it has discarded the idea of dominating tower over the chancel. Being a modest unpretentious structure, it has no particular architectural merit, but it stands as a land mark of history and church architecture of India. Numerous churches has been built on the Indian soil keeping the St. Francis church as the model.
The exact date of the construction of the St. Francis church is not known. Presumably it owes its origin to the Franciscan Friars who accompanied the Portuguese expedition under Pedro Alvarez Gabral. Originally it is said to have been built of wood but later rebuilt in stone perhaps within the first few years of the sixteenth century. It is a lofty edifice with a gabled timber-framed roof covered with tiles. Facing the west, it has a semi-circular arched entrance and windows above. The facade is impressive, flanked on either side by a stepped pinnacle. There is a bell-turret on the summit of the gable-front, divided into three compartments. Inside the chancel is divided from the nave by a plain arched opening and the top of the chancel roof is crowned by two stepped pinnacles. It exhibits an architecture of arch.
This is the church where Vasco-da Gama was buried in 1524, though his body was removed in 1538 to Portugal. In 1663 it is passed on to the hands of the Dutch, who were protestants, it was restored by the Dutch in 1779. After the occupation of Cochin by the British in 1795, it gradually became an Anglican Church. At present it has been taken over by the Church of South India.
Some of the heraldic designs an armorial bearings on the tomb-stones, affixed on the walls of this church are examples of fine workmanship. The earliest Portuguese epitaph here dates back to1562, while that of Dutch to 1664.
Interior of many Churches of Kerala shows fine wood-works and also paintings devoted mainly to the life story of Jesus Christ. The murals depicting the fight between the English and Tipu Sultan are seen in a Church at Kanjhur.
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